[Viewpoint] Specific ambient PM 2.5-bound perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS): A Prominent human health risk issue that deserves Attention?
By Sarawut Sangkham, Worradorn Phairuang, Nattapon Pansakun, and Alex T. Ford
Environ Sci Technol
July 18, 2025
DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5c07694
Over 15,000 perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) comprise a large group of synthetic chemical compounds that have been extensively used in industrial and household products since the 1950s. (1) These pollutants originate from anthropogenic sources, especially consumer and industrial products (e.g., food packaging, textiles, and carpets, nonstick cookware, coatings, and firefighting foams, (2) as well as landfill gas emissions. (3) The release of PFAS and PM2.5 into the environment often occurs from anthropogenic sources (Figure 1). PFASs have become a significant concern due to their high environmental persistence and widespread distribution. In 2024, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), part of the World Health Organization (WHO), identified two prominent PFAS─perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS)─as carcinogenic. Especially, PFOA was categorized as ″carcinogenic to humans″ (Group 1) based on strong mechanistic evidence in exposed humans and sufficient evidence for carcinogenicity in experimental animals. PFOA exhibits several key characteristics of human carcinogens and has demonstrated the ability to induce cancer in laboratory animals. Additionally, PFOA was shown to have immunosuppressive effects and epigenetic changes, the mechanistic evidence was ″strong″ in exposed humans. (4,5) Industrialization has significantly contributed to the release of PFASs into the air, surface water, soil and groundwater, rendering them a global concern due to their classification as persistent organic pollutants or ″forever chemicals″. These substances can accumulate in biological tissues and fluids, such as human plasma (6) and breast milk.
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